Ollantaytambo - Sacred Valley

Ollantaytambo

 Ollantaytambo was a hilltop fortress and temple. It was used as one of the last efforts to fend itself from the Spaniards. It was considered a fortress for its massive granite blocks and the fact that Manco Inca built the wall surrounding Ollantaytambo during the rebellion against the Spaniards in 1536.

There are still parts that look unfinished in Ollantaytambo, this could be because there was a remodel undergo when the Spanish invaded, possibly underway because of the Incan emperor Pachacuti. There still remains a ramp where the blocks are expected to have been dragged up from the nearby quarry. There are stones that do not have a "home, but this could also be to earthquakes, or the Spanish destroying certain parts of a building that cast the stones further from their original site.

An interesting aspect about Ollantaytambo is the storehouse that is directly across the valley that is visibly higher altitude, the higher altitude was to limit or prevent food decay. Like most agricultural terraces of the time there is extensive drainage and irrigation system throughout the terraces, this still holds today and prevents large amounts of erosion or flooding despite the modern changes in the town below.

View from Atop Ollantaytambo - View of Storehouse

While there is not much credible information that I have found about the actual inhabitants or interesting information on the habits of Ollantaytambo, there is a good deal of information or speculation about the construction and architecture. There is the double jammed doorway with such precise stonework that is mostly used in prestigious Inca buildings, this could indicate that Inca nobility or important people of the realm lived here at one point like an imperial estate, this site has been likened to Machu Picchu because of this possibility. There is also a half built Temple to Inti, that was thought to be been in process when the spaniards arrived. This leads archaeologists to believe that this area was used for ceremonies or even just a center for administrative purposes. In other words everybody seems to agree that this area was important for a variety of reason, and the evidence to support this is the beautiful stonework. Stones that fit together so closely, without the use of mortar and that have lasted for years and will continue to do so.

Solid Stone some weighing up to 50 tons

Caral - The Lost Pyramids

One of Caral Temple

Found in 1994 by Ruth Shady, Caral is estimated to be around 3000-2600 BC making it the oldest civilizations found in South America. Caral was an exciting find not only because it was relatively recent but because it could be the city that changes the idea of why civilizations were formed. There is a theory that modern society came from people bonding together for protection against fear and warfare.  Caral shows absolutely no evidence of conflict, warfare or weapons. Ruth Shady has given evidence that the reason people came together to make a community and city was for trade and religious purposes. It is thought of as the first central government that was created in South America


There is evidence of trade throughout Caral, there are remnants of fish; anchovies and sardines from the coast that is 32 km away. It appears to have been a good reciprocal trade from the coast, as Caral's crops consisted of cotton which was made into fishing nets. Crops also consisted of beans, squash, sweet potato, gourds, achira (queensland arrowroot), and guayaba fruit. There was an irrigation system from the river to the crops, the land in Supe is very fertile when water is available. Caral appeared to be a place where people enjoyed themselves, there is an amphitheater where many carved bone flutes were found, there was traces of a plant that was probably used as aphrodisiacs.  Hallucinogenics were found inside shells and could have been used during religious ceremonies, other drugs like coka plants, and lime plant which was inhaled as a substance. The only remains human remains found inside Caral was of a two month old baby, that was placed in a fetal position covered in fine cloth and beads which presumably came from a necklace or jewelry.  Another important find was a primitive looking khipu (quipu) which invalidates the suggestion that Wari culture created khipu's, this is especially significant because it means that it is one of the earliest forms or writing and record keeping.


Archaeologists have estimated that people inhabited Caral for around 1000 years, it was remodeled multiple times over this period. There are six temples which are all unique unto each other, with size, orientation and layout. This was probably to distinguish the temples to the residents and visitors. The temples are made earthquake resistant by having groups of the interior stones in nets, so movement could occur but would not dislodge the whole temple.  Near one of the temples, is a walled plaza with a sunken amphitheater, with elevated grounds around it. This is suggested to be symbolizing the mother east and the father apu, or some other balance in their world. Near the amphitheater (29 m in diameter) is a fire alter where religious ceremonies could have been centralized.

Vegetation around the river (view from near a temple)

Inca Empire Background

It is estimated that the Inca Empire was established 1200 AD and the demise of the Inca Empire in 1532 AD when Francisco Pizzaro desembarked near Tumbas, Peru. The Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu) spread past  modern day Quito, Ecuador down to Santiago, Chile. The empire was separated into four quarters. Cuzco the capital and also the center point that connected the quarters Chichaysuyu, Antisuyu, Cuntisuyu, Collasuyu. The empire was made up of approx. 10 million Inca subjects, 40,000 people were actually considered Incas. Incas were the royal family and its descendants, while the rest were just viewed as Inca subjects.


Both the Wari (600 AD) and Tiwanaku (200 AD) were civilizations that help influence the Inca and decision making, they took from the Wari the idea of a network of roads that would interlace far flung cities, they also learned administrative techniques and the Khipu could possibly have come from the Wari culture, but this was discredited when a khipu was found at Caral. Tiwanaku was the first area out of Cuzco that the Incas conquered. This was a large gain for the Incas because of the source of income from the alpacas and llamas, used as a food source and used the fiber to make textiles.

Khipu's found at Pachacamac

Khipu's (literally translated as knot) pictured above were used as record keepers, it is assumed that they may have held information about the empires like tax data or agriculture gains/losses, or the movement of people and cities. The possibilities of what information they hold could be end less.  Khipu's as shown have a long length of chord (made out of cotton) with multiple cords attached, there were different sizes and colors. The knots themselves on khipu's could symbolize anything from numbers to words. There is two reasons that we do not fully understand or know how to read a khipu is that they are extraordinarily complex, and that there are only so many remaining. The few number of khipu's remaining - estimated 600 are, this may be because Pizarro was not interested in record keeping and did not bother preserving the khipu's or it could be that the spanish destroyed a large number of khipu's.



*Good website to visualize civilizations spread and change of cultures in South America. http://www.timemaps.com/history/peru-1500bc

Pachacamac "Lord of Earthquakes"

Pachacamac was a religious center for both the Wari and Inca empire. In Pachacamac there was an oracle (image one) that was considered the "Lord of Earthquakes". Oracles give prophecies and with their opinions it "allowed them to contradict the power, authority and divinity of a ruler" (The Incas). This was connected to the temple of Pachacamac which is pre-Inca.

Image one - Wooden Idol of Pachacamac Idol

Oracles could be used for both administration for example crops and weather, or on the other side of military decisions and the outcome of a battle. Priests of the oracle act as voices or mediums, priests that make accurate decisions are rewarded with gifts of precious metal, cloth, llamas and on rare occasions qhapaq hucha - children sacrifice. An inaccurate priest, or a priest that gives unfavorable predictions was beheaded. Willaq Umu were high priests of the Sun in the Inca empire. They had the ability to choose and get rid of priests.

The oracle of Pachacamac was linked to the oracles of Mala and Chinchay which were both branches of the religious center. Tributes to the oracles like cotton, maize, coca leaves and much more came from all parts of the Inca empire. In 1896 Unle discovered 46 females strangled, this is thought to be a tribute to the sun god Inti (Inca god)

In Pachacamac there is a temple where a Acclawasi (aqllawasi) which is the house of chosen women (image two), they were chosen specifically to serve Inca religion, this includes improving economical and political ties. Women chosen for a Acclawasi were to stay virgins until they were given as brides to important leaders of the community. Chosen women were important brewers of chicha and weavers of fine cloth.

Image two

Pachacamac was previously linked to other coastal valleys and civilization through a organization of Ychma. Pachacamac was so important and influential to the pre-Inca community that Topa Inca (an Incan ruler) "was desirous of having only a temple to the sun; but as that shrine (Pachacamac) was so venerated by the natives, he refrained, and contented himself with having a great temple to the sun built" (The Incas)

Pacha Kamaq means "Creator of the world" in quechua. Linguists have theorized that quechua originated in Pachacamac a coastal city instead of the long held belief it originated in Cuzco. In modern language there are spelling discrepancies because the Peruvian government standardized a quechua alphabet that was later revised, with a example above; Acclawasi, aqllwasi. While "creator of the world" indicates a connections to the land water and creations, it was believed the Pachacamac created earthquakes and used them if not pleased with offerings.

Morris, Craig, and Adriana Von Hagen. The Incas. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2011. 65. Print.

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Planning for Fall 2013 - Peru

Possible Sites

La Cintinela 200 miles from Lima

            11 Well defined pyramids

            Highly centralized

La Centinela was the Incan capital of the kingdom of the Chinca. It is "an unusual site in that it is one of the very few places where the Incas incorporated a major state installation into a preexisting, and still functioning, non-Inca capital."

Isla de sol/luna

            Lake Titicaca, Puno. Maybe Bolivia

Huancane, Hatun Quolla

            -over 80 Ruins on island

            - Sun god was born here

Cusco – capital of the incan empire

            Machu Picchu, Wayna Picchu, Saqsawaman, Ollataytambo

Pachacamac – religious centre, hour or two outside LIma

            Originally Ichma then Incans came and preserved it as a religious centre.

            17 pyramids still standing, 5 pyrimids and sun shrine were from Incan period.

Caral

            Not directly inca related

                        Evidence of quipu – counting system

Research Project (Final)

            Research and discover connections at different sites for Colonial Period and Post Colonial Architecture and Art. I should be aware of living traditions as they are practiced. Create a final project that illustrates where and if the Incan culture is still relevant and present in modern Peru.

 Books

1.     Incas and Their Ancestors The Archaeology of Peru – Michael Moseley (Thames and Hudson)

2.     Andean Archaeology  - Helaine Silverman

3.     The Art & Architecture of the Incas – David M Jones

4.     Domination without Dominance – Inca – Spanish Encounters in early Colonial Peru  - Gonzalo Lamana

“offers an alternative narrative of the conquest of the Incas that both examines and shifts away from the colonial imprint that still permeates most accounts of that confrontation. “

5.     History’s Peru: The poetics of Colonial and Postcolonial Historiography – Mark Thurner

6.     Huanuco Pampa: Inca city and its hinterland – Craig Morris
7. The Incas - Craig Morris

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